​Since India’s independence in 1947, the methodology for estimating poverty has undergone significant transformations, influenced by evolving economic policies, demographic changes, and social considerations. Various committees have played pivotal roles in refining these methodologies to better capture the multifaceted nature of poverty.​

1. Dadabhai Naoroji’s Subsistence Approach (1876)

• Introduced the “Drain Theory,” highlighting the economic exploitation of India under British rule.​

• Proposed that poverty resulted from the transfer of wealth from India to Britain, leading to widespread impoverishment.​

2. Dandekar and Rath Methodology (1971)

• Recommended a poverty line based on the expenditure required to provide 2,250 calories per person per day.

• Calculated that a rural individual needed an annual income of ₹170.80, while an urban individual required ₹271.70 to meet basic nutritional needs.​

• Estimated that 40% of rural and 50% of urban populations lived below this poverty line in 1960–61. ​

3. Alagh Committee Recommendations (1979)

• Adjusted poverty estimates for inflation, ensuring that the poverty line reflected changes in the cost of living.​

• Calculated poverty lines based on nutritional requirements, considering regional variations in food consumption patterns.​

4. Lakdawala Committee Approach (1993)

• Introduced state-specific poverty lines, acknowledging regional disparities in living standards and costs.​

• Discontinued scaling based on National Accounts Statistics, focusing instead on direct consumption measures.

5. Tendulkar Committee Methodology (2009)

• Expanded the poverty line basket beyond calorie consumption to include items like clothing, housing, and education.​

• Recommended a uniform reference period for expenditure reporting, enhancing comparability across items.​

• Adjusted poverty lines for private expenditures, providing a more accurate reflection of household consumption.​

• Estimated that 29.8% of the population lived below the poverty line in 2009–10. ​

6. Rangarajan Committee Reassessment (2014)

• Revised the poverty line to ₹972 per person per month in rural areas and ₹1,407 in urban areas, based on normative and behavioral consumption patterns.​

• Estimated that 29.5% of the population was below the poverty line in 2011–12, highlighting a significant portion of the population living in poverty. ​

7. Recent Developments and Surveys (2022–2023)

• The Ministry of Statistics and Programme Implementation conducted the Household Consumption Expenditure Survey during 2022–23, providing updated data on consumption patterns.

• Based on this survey, the State Bank of India reported rural poverty at 7.2% and urban poverty at 4.6% for the period, with new poverty lines set at ₹1,622 per person per month for rural areas and ₹1,929 for urban areas.

These evolving methodologies reflect India’s dynamic approach to poverty estimation, adapting to changing economic landscapes and striving for more accurate and inclusive measures. Each committee’s recommendations have contributed to a nuanced understanding of poverty, influencing policy interventions aimed at poverty alleviation.

After India gained independence, various tribal policies were introduced to promote the welfare of tribal communities. Key features of these policies included:

1. Protection of Tribal Rights: The Indian Constitution recognized the need for special provisions for tribes, such as Article 46, which ensures the protection of their interests.

2. Tribal Sub-Plan (TSP): Launched in the 1970s, this aimed to channel funds specifically for tribal development in a more targeted manner.

3. Development Programs: Schemes like the Integrated Tribal Development Projects (ITDP) were designed to improve living standards, infrastructure, education, and health in tribal areas.

4. Forest Rights Act (2006): Recognizing the dependence of tribals on forests, this act granted legal rights to forest-dwelling tribes.

Despite these initiatives, progress has been slow due to several reasons:

1. Isolation and Geographical Challenges: Tribes often reside in remote and difficult-to-access areas, making the implementation of policies and programs difficult.

2. Cultural and Social Barriers: Tribal communities have their own distinct customs and resist external influences, making integration with mainstream development challenging.

3. Lack of Awareness and Education: Limited education and awareness about their rights and available schemes hinder tribal participation in development programs.

4. Corruption and Mismanagement: In some cases, the misallocation of funds and corruption at local levels prevented effective implementation of policies.

Introduction: The Rise of Natural Farming in India

Natural farming, a method that eliminates synthetic chemicals and fertilizers, is gaining attention in India as a sustainable alternative to conventional agriculture. With increasing environmental concerns and rising costs of chemical inputs, this practice offers a viable solution for farmers, especially in rural areas.

Potential of Natural Farming

• Environmental Benefits: Natural farming helps restore soil health, improve water retention, and reduce pollution from chemical runoff.

• Economic Viability: Lower input costs and better long-term soil productivity can boost farm profitability. For example, Haryana’s “Zero Budget Natural Farming” has seen success in reducing costs and improving yields.

Challenges

• Certification Issues: The lack of uniform certification standards across states creates confusion and discourages farmers.

• Market Accessibility: There’s a limited market for natural produce, leading to lower demand and poor price realization for farmers.

• Knowledge Gaps: Farmers often lack the necessary expertise to implement natural farming techniques effectively.

Measures to Overcome Challenges

• Standardized Certification: Establish a clear, pan-India certification system for natural farming.

• Government Support: Increase subsidies and financial incentives for adopting natural farming methods.

• Market Expansion: Build supply chains and promote consumer awareness to enhance demand for organic produce.

By addressing these challenges, India can significantly boost natural farming’s potential.

The 73rd and 74th Constitutional Amendments aimed to democratize governance by empowering Panchayats and Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). These amendments mandated regular elections, financial autonomy, and greater decision-making powers. However, true democratic decentralization has faced challenges. Despite constitutional provisions, states often retain control over funds and functions, limiting local autonomy. For example, the devolution of the “3Fs” (funds, functions, and functionaries) remains inadequate, and local bodies often lack financial resources. Additionally, political interference undermines the independence of local institutions.

Key challenges include limited financial devolution, lack of trained staff, and the reluctance of state governments to transfer power. To enhance effectiveness, better financial resources, capacity building, and empowering local bodies with decision-making authority are essential. Strengthening the State Finance Commissions and promoting participatory governance can further support true decentralization.

India continues to face a significant skill gap in its workforce, despite various governmental initiatives aimed at bridging this divide. Key factors contributing to this issue include the lack of alignment between education curricula and industry demands, inadequate vocational training infrastructure, and limited engagement with industry professionals in skill development programs. Moreover, the focus on theoretical education over practical skills, coupled with an insufficient emphasis on soft skills, further exacerbates the problem. The socio-cultural factors that discourage skill-based training, especially among marginalized communities, also play a critical role.

To address this gap, a multi-pronged approach is necessary. First, the integration of industry-specific skills into academic curricula is crucial, ensuring students are job-ready. Expanding vocational training programs, especially in emerging sectors like AI, renewable energy, and digital services, can help meet industry requirements. Additionally, a strong collaboration between the government, private sector, and educational institutions is essential for creating a more responsive skilling ecosystem. Lastly, promoting public-private partnerships (PPPs) and incentivizing industry-led skill initiatives can further strengthen the workforce. A focus on continuous learning and upskilling will also be vital to ensure workers remain competitive in an evolving job market.