According to Dr. K.R. Qanungo, Sher Shah Suri was a constructive genius and arguably a better nation builder than Akbar the Great due to his innovative policies and administrative reforms.

Sher Shah implemented a robust administrative framework, establishing a centralized system that improved governance. He introduced the decimal revenue system, which made tax collection more efficient and fair, benefiting the agrarian economy.

His emphasis on infrastructure development, particularly the construction of the Grand Trunk Road, facilitated trade and communication, enhancing economic prosperity.

Additionally, Sher Shah’s efforts in maintaining law and order and his focus on justice established a sense of stability.

While Akbar is often celebrated for his cultural and religious tolerance, Sher Shah’s practical and immediate reforms laid the groundwork for a unified and prosperous state, showcasing his nation-building capabilities.

Ibrahim Lodi’s defeat in the Battle of Panipat (1526) can be attributed to several key factors:

1. Weak Leadership: Ibrahim’s leadership faced significant challenges, leading to discontent among his troops and lack of cohesive strategy.
2. Babar’s Military Strategy: Babar employed effective tactics, including the innovative use of artillery and strategic positioning, which gave him a tactical advantage.
3. Lack of Alliances: Ibrahim lacked strong alliances, while many regional rulers supported Babar, bolstering his forces.
4. Divided Forces: Disunity within Ibrahim’s army weakened its combat effectiveness, as soldiers were demoralized and lacked coordination.
5. Superior Training: Babar’s troops were better trained and experienced, enhancing their performance in battle.

These factors combined led to Ibrahim Lodi’s decisive defeat.

Kautilya’s ‘Arthashastra’ is a foundational text on statecraft, economics, and political theory from the Maurya period. Its content covers a wide range of topics, including:

1. State Administration: Guidelines for effective governance, including the roles and responsibilities of rulers and officials.
2. Economics: Strategies for taxation, trade, and resource management to ensure state prosperity.
3. Military Strategy: Tactics for warfare, including the importance of espionage and alliances.
4. Diplomacy: Principles of foreign policy, emphasizing the use of diplomacy and negotiation over conflict.
5. Law and Justice: Legal frameworks to maintain order and justice within the state.

Overall, ‘Arthashastra’ provides a pragmatic approach to ruling and managing a kingdom, focusing on both practical governance and the ethical implications of power.

The downfall of Buddhism in India resulted from several factors:

1. Loss of Royal Patronage: With the decline of powerful Buddhist kings, such as the Mauryas, support waned, leading to reduced resources for monasteries and institutions.
2. Hindu Revival: Hinduism underwent significant reform and revitalization, incorporating many Buddhist ideas and practices, which attracted former Buddhists back.
3. Sectarian Divisions: The emergence of various Buddhist sects led to fragmentation, undermining unity and coherence within the religion.
4. Decline of Monastic Centers: Prominent Buddhist universities and monasteries faced neglect, leading to a decline in scholarship and community support.
5. Islamic Invasions: The arrival of Islamic invaders in the medieval period resulted in the destruction of monasteries and the suppression of Buddhist practices.

These factors collectively contributed to Buddhism’s decline in its homeland.

The Rigvedic period (circa 1500-1200 BCE) is characterized by the composition of the Rigveda, focusing on hymns dedicated to deities, rituals, and nature. Society was primarily tribal and pastoral, with a strong emphasis on agriculture and cattle-rearing.

In contrast, the Later Vedic period (circa 1200-600 BCE) saw the emergence of other Vedas (Yajurveda, Samaveda, Atharvaveda) and the development of complex social structures, including the establishment of the varna system. Urbanization and trade flourished, and philosophical thought expanded with the rise of the Upanishads, which explored metaphysical concepts and the nature of the self.

In summary, while the Rigvedic period focused on religious and natural themes, the Later Vedic period emphasized social organization and philosophical inquiry.