National Commission for Women

National Commission for Women, in 1992 was formulated, as an independent body incorporated in the National Commission for Women Act, 1990. It deals for providing legal protection and advancement in favor of women within Indian subcontinent.

Its mandates consist of reviewing all kinds of issues concerning rights towards women and making suitable recommendations so that their protection could be ensured.

NCW Structure

As per Section 3 of the National Commission for Women Act 1990, the Commission shall consist of a Chairperson, 5Members, and a Member-Secretary who are nominated by the Central Government.

Composition

1. Chairperson- Committed to the cause of women

1. 5 Members- Amongst persons of ability, integrity, and standing who have had experience in law or legislation, trade unionism, women’s voluntary organizations, administration, health, education, etc.

Note: At least one Member shall be from amongst persons belonging to the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes, respectively.

1. Member-Secretary= An expert in the field of management, organizational structure, or sociological movement (or) an officer who is a member of a civil service of the Union or of an all-India service or holds a civil post under the Union with appropriate experience.

Functions of Women’s Commissions:

Research and Study

• Women’s commissions research studies issues related to women’s rights and gender equality.
• Obtain data and information related to the formulation of fact-based policy recommendations.

Advocacy and Awareness

• Organize advocacy work for promotion of women’s rights, and gender equality issues.
• Prepare campaigns and events to induce social awareness and alter existing attitudes toward women.

Legal Aid and Support:

• Women’s commissions often offer legal aid and counseling to women who are victims of discrimination, violence, or other violations of their rights.
• Women are empowered to pursue justice and navigate the judicial system.

Capacity Building/Training:

• All stakeholders, including police officers, are sensitized and capacitated to handle women’s issues.

Policy Recommendations:

• Based on their research and findings, women’s commissions devise policy recommendations to the government to correct systemic gender inequalities and establish a gender-friendly society.

Cooperation and Association:

• They work together with a broad range of stakeholders, such as NGOs, civil society organizations, and other governmental bodies.tr

The Industrial Revolution began in England for the following reasons, among others:
New technology
Important innovations that fuelled the Industrial Revolution included the development of the spinning jenny, water frame, and spinning mule in the cotton industry.
Steam power
The discovery of steam power made traveling and the movement of goods easier and faster, hence mass production.
Strong financial institutions
England had developed financial institutions which could invest in new inventions and factories.
Colonial market
England had a colonial market to sell its goods.
Agricultural Revolution
The Agricultural Revolution, started in the 17th century, produced more food.

Industrial Revolution: The Industrial Revolution had numerous impacts, and these are:
Shift to manufacturing economy: The Industrial Revolution led societies from an agrarian economy to a manufacturing one.
Increased production: It was the Industrial Revolution that led to increased production and efficiency.
Low prices: The Industrial Revolution led to low prices.
Better wages: It was the Industrial Revolution that led to better wages.
Urbanization: During the Industrial Revolution, there was urbanization from rural areas.
Collapse of traditional industries: Hand weaving and businesses that used stagecoaches declined as a result of industrialization.

Conclusion- A long time ago, there was a big change called the Industrial Revolution. Before this, most people worked on farms, but then many started working in factories. In England, there were good things happening, like new machines, steam engines, and banks that helped people start businesses. They also grew more food, which made it easier for people to live in cities. Because of this change, things could be made in large amounts, so prices became lower and more people moved to towns. Even though some old ways of working went away, this time helped create the modern world we live in today, with new jobs and different ways of living.

Classification of Soil in India

Soils of India are classified into eight categories by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR). The All-India Soil Survey Committee was established by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in 1963. This committee classified Indian soils into eight broad types.  ICAR divided India into the following groups:

1. Alluvial soil: Extensively distributed in northern plains and river valleys.

• In peninsular India, mainly they are found in deltas and estuaries.
• Contains humus, lime, organic matter.
• Highly fertile.
• Indus-Ganga-Brahmaputhra plain, Narmada-Tapi plain etc
• Depositional soil – carried and deposited by rivers, streams, etc
• The content of sand reduces from west to east in the country.
• New alluvium is known as Khadar while old alluvium is called Bhangar.
• Colour: Light Grey to Ash Grey.
• Texture: Sandy to silty loam or clay.
• Rich in: potash
• Poor in: phosphorous.
• Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, pulses, oilseed, etc. are mainly grown.

1. Red soil:

• Red soils are primarily found in the areas with low rainfall.
• It is also referred as Omnibus group.
• Practically porous, loose texture
• Lime, kankar (impure calcium carbonate) content absent.
• Poor in: lime, phosphate, manganese, nitrogen, humus and potash.
• Colour: Red due to Ferric oxide. The lower layer is reddish-yellow or yellow.
• Texture: Sandy to clay and loamy.
• Wheat, cotton, pulses, tobacco, oilseeds, potatoes, etc. are cultivated.

1. Laterite soil:

• Name from the Latin word ‘Later’ which means Brick.
• It becomes so soft when wet and so hard when dried.
• In the areas of high temperature and high rainfall.
• Formed as a result of high leaching.
• Lime and silica will be leached away from the soil.
• Organic matter in soil will be decomposed readily by the bacteria as it is high temperature and humus will be absorbed immediately by the trees and other plants. Thus, content of humus is less
• Iron and Aluminum
• Nitrogen, Potash, Potassium, Lime, Humus
• Red color because of iron oxide.
• Majorly Rice, Ragi, Sugarcane and Cashew nuts are raised.

1. Desert / arid soil:

• Found in Arid and Semi-Arid region.
• Mostly formed by wind action.
• It is highly saline.
• Contents of moisture and humus are zero.
• Content of Kankar or impure Calcium carbonate is higher so that water cannot penetrate the soil.
• Nitrogen contents are very low and phosphatic contents are within permissible limit
• Texture: Sandy
• Colour: Red to Brown
• Peaty/ Marshy soil
• Rainfall intensity and humidity is higher in such places
• Peaty soil has minimal vegetative growths too
• More dead organic matters or humus content lead to alkalinity in such soil
• Black heavy soils.
• High organic matter with a tendency towards acidity: peaty, marshy soils are in Kerala backwaters and northern India
• Wetland agriculture and rice and other aquatic crops.

1. Forest soil:

• Forest, hill soils occur in thickly forested regions as well as higher altitudes. It is acidic; sometimes even shallow topsoil.
• These soils are highly essential for the sustenance of the forest ecosystem but not good for intensive agriculture.

1. Mountain soil:

• Poorly developed soil, with humus content being low and acidic.
• Mountain soils are found in hills and mountainous regions such as Himalayas. It is weathered to the maximum level and varies depending on local conditions.
• The soil can be used for horticulture, tea, and temperate crops like apple and potato.

1. Saline and Alkaline Soils:

• Saline and alkaline soils are found in coastal areas and arid regions. They have a large concentration of salts and alkalis and are less productive for most crops.
• These soils can be brought into agricultural use by providing drainage and soil amendments.

1. Black soil / regur soil:

• Regur means cotton – the best soil for cotton cultivation.
• Most of the Deccan is covered with Black soil.
• Mature soil.
• High water retaining capacity.
• It forms cracks when dried and gets sticky when wet.
• It has self-plowing since it forms wide cracks.
• Iron, lime, calcium, potassium, aluminum, and magnesium are present.
• Nitrogen, phosphorus, and organic matter deficient.
• Deep black to light black in color.
• Texture is clayey.

Veto Power of President of India
When a bill is presented in the Parliament, Parliament can enact the bill and before the bill becomes an act, it has to be given to the Indian President for his assent. It is on the President of India to either reject the bill, return the bill or withhold his assent to the bill. The choice of the President over the bill is called his veto power. Veto Article 111 of the Indian Constitution guides the power of the President of India.

What are the three types of Veto?
Types of vetoes are:

1. Absolute Veto
The power of the President to withhold the assent to the bill is termed as his absolute
veto.
2. Suspensive Veto
The power of the President to return the bill to the Parliament with or without
consideration is called suspensive veto.
3. Pocket Veto
It is termed pocket veto when the power of the President is not acted upon the bill.

1. Absolute Veto of the President:

Following facts are given related to the absolute veto power of the Indian President-

– After exercising his absolute veto power, a bill never goes to see daylight.
After passing by the Indian Parliament, the bill comes to an end, and that bill does not become an act.
– The absolute veto is applied by President in the following two circumstances:
(i) The Parliament has passed the Private Member Bill
(ii) A new cabinet may emerge without the assent given by President to the bill, that was passed by the previous one. The
new cabinet may advise the President that he should not give his assent to the bill passed by
the previous cabinet.
Note: Thus far, absolute veto, by the President has already been exercised, at India. In the year, 1954
was used by Dr. Rajendra Prasad as a President and later in 1991 it was
used by then President R Venkataraman.

2. Suspensive Veto of the President
Following facts about the suspensive veto power of the Indian President are described below:
President applies his suspensive veto when he sends the bill back to the Indian Parliament
for re-considering that.
– His suspensive veto can be over-ridden by the re-passage of the bill by the Indian
Parliament. If the Parliament resend the bill with or without amendment to the
Indian President, he has to approve the bill without using any of his veto powers.
– With respect to state bills, state legislature has no power to override the suspensive
veto of President. Governor can withhold the bill for the President’s consideration
and even if state legislature resends the bill to governor and governor to President,
he still can withhold his assent.
– When the Parliament resends the bill to the President, it has to follow only the
ordinary majority in the houses and not the higher majority.
– President cannot exercise his suspensive veto in relation to Money Bill.

3. Pocket Veto of the President
Following are some facts about the pocket veto power of the Indian President:
When the Indian President exercises pocket veto, he keeps a bill pending for an indefinite time. The President neither rejects the bill nor returns it for reconsideration.
According to the Constitution, it does not provide for any definite time in regard to within which period he needs to act upon the bill. So there is pocket veto wherein he doesn’t have
to enact on the bill.
Unlike that of the American President, who is obligated to resend it back within 10 days the Indian President has no such time rule.

Judicial activism means applying judicial powers for creating law toward the protection of rights, social justice, or public interest. Overreaching by the judge means stepping beyond the judges’ power and influencing the other arms of government.

Additional details on judicial activism and judicial overreach.

• Judicial activism

Judges can apply the interpretations of the law in order to stretch or limit rights or solve disputes in a way not directly provided by the law. The judicial activism is said to be based on personal judicial views on public policy.

• Judicial overreach
  Judicial overreach is when judges are making decisions that fall under other branches of government. It may involve interfering with the legislative or executive branch, or policymaking. Judicial overreach can cause the breakdown of the separation of powers, a cornerstone of many democratic systems.
• Balance of power
  Activist judge may play an actively responsive role in filling policy legislating voids towards serving social justice. Again, judicial overreach holds off the executive and brings harm towards the public.
  
• These are surely some more complaints surrounding judicial activism and overreaching by the bench,
  1. Oversteps for the Legislative Power
  A heavy judicial hand intervention through policymaking could dissipate the power of elected officials who are entrusted in this society to enact legislative activities. This will deteriorate further the role of its democratically elected representatives.
• 2. Influence on Administrative Efficiency: Courts acting like the executive as in detailed guidelines or dicta from the courts have administrative bottlenecks resulting in breakdowns of procedures of governance, slowing up the rate of policy enforcement.
• 
  3. Judicial Acumen and Pragmatism: In some areas the courts would not have appropriate technical expertise or specialized acumen of the policy or regulation-whether economic environmental, in these areas it may be difficult for judgements issued by the courts to have pragmatic value for practical executions.
• 
  4.Bias and Subjectivity: Judicial activism, if motivated by the personal beliefs or values of a judge, would be characterized by subjective judgments rather than an objective interpretation of the law, and therefore would raise questions regarding judicial impartiality.
• 
  5.Litigative Culture: Over-reliance on the judiciary to solve social and policy issues creates a culture where people tend to resort to courts instead of dealing with matters through legislative and administrative avenues, thereby over-burdening the judiciary with non-judicial issues.
• 
  6. Risk to Judicial Independence: Extended political intervention is likely to present the judiciary as biased or even an ally of certain philosophies and will thus conflict with other organs and reduce the public’s confidence in its independence.
• 
  7. Precedence for Future Overreach: The judicial overreach gives precedence for the future case, which often has a trend of continued encroachment by the judicial branch to the detriment of other organs and thereby impinging the constitutional balance of power.