International agreements aimed at climate change mitigation have gained significance through their establishment.

The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) which was created in 1992 serves as the fundamental international guiding document to enhance climate change cooperation.

The Kyoto Protocol established during 1997 set mandatory emission reduction requirements that applied to developed nations.

The Paris Agreement (2015) functions as a significant protocol to maintain global warming below two degrees Celsius above initial industrial temperature levels. The agreement stimulates countries to develop individualized Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs) for emission reductions.

These agreements aim to:

The reduction of greenhouse gas emissions can be achieved through implementing renewable power systems along with increased energy efficiency methods and sustainable land usage techniques.
The development of climate change adaptation strategies gets better through country-specific support for implementing strategies against sea-level rise events along with extreme weather conditions and decreasing agricultural productivity.
The promotion of international cooperation enables countries to collaborate by exchanging climate change adaptation methods through technological support and financial programs and development resources.

Challenges and Limitations:

Numerous nations experience difficulties in NDC execution since they lack monetary support combined with insufficient technological resources alongside operational capacity.

The current NDCs face criticism because experts claim they do not achieve the required level of ambition for maintaining a 1.5 degrees Celsius maximum temperature rise according to Paris Agreement objectives.

International relations based on geopolitical tensions together with weak cooperation between nations frequently block the successful application of climate agreements.

These international agreements create a vital foundation which enables worldwide climate change initiatives despite existing difficulties. The success of our global efforts to combat this serious challenge depends on sustained work to improve these agreements and their operational practices.

A possible link exists between Himalayan region construction lacking supervision and glacier melting and the occurrences of glacial lake bursting (GLOFs).

The construction activities without supervision that include building roads and mining sites and deforestation activities speed up glacier melting rates. These activities can:
-The process of construction generates black carbon emissions commonly referred to as soot while also causing its deposition to rise. The deposition of black carbon on snow and ice surfaces allows the absorption of solar radiation and quickens the melting process.
-Construction work that changes drainage patterns causes problems with meltwater movement and may create situations leading to GLOFs.
Desertification via slope destabilization occurs because construction activities create conditions that permit landslide and debris flow formations which ultimately generate GLOFs.

Glacial Lake Stability Effects:
-The construction process widens glacial lake sedimentation at a higher rate that gradually lifts the lake surface potentially leading to dam failure.
-The building process interrupts moraine dams which leads to their destabilization.
The disturbance of moraines that serve as natural lake dams leads to increased vulnerability for water dam ruptures which results in GLOFs.

The prevention of glacial lake outburst floods demands a multi-dimensional approach that requires three main solutions.

-A comprehensive set of environmental rules needs implementation to manage Himalayan building operations and decrease their ecological impacts.

-A strong surveillance system combined with GLOF prediction capabilities requires establishment to monitor glacial lakes.

-The preparation and reaction to disasters must receive enhanced support because it helps reduce the effects of GLOFs on local populations as well as infrastructure systems.

Economical development practices in the Himalayan region must become sustainable to prevent GLOF risks from increasing.

Challenges and Solutions for India’s Innovation Ecosystem

Introduction
Research shows that India’s innovation ecosystem keeps expanding which placed it as the 40th most innovative nation per Global Innovation Index (2022) while maintaining 3rd position worldwide with 105 unicorns including 44 in 2021 and 19 in 2022. The structure presents various hurdles which slow down its potential growth. Economic growth and technological development require the solution of existing barriers.

Key Challenges

1. Rote-Based Learning (Educational Constraints)
Memorization-based instruction patterns in the Indian education framework prevent students from developing their creative thinking abilities thereby suppressing innovation.
Convergent thinking education practices which dominate divergent thinking education practices block students from developing proper problem-solving abilities.

2. Lack of Scalability
Poor infrastructure together with inadequate investment hinders the ability to convert innovative concepts into marketable products.
The Gross Expenditure on R&D (GERD) of India amounts to less than 1% of GDP which puts the nation behind global leaders in R&D investment.

3. The needs of industry and the academic curricula exist in different spaces creating a gap between them when it comes to STEM talent quality. Insufficient quality of workforce emerges as a result of these circumstances.
Research shows that subpar connections between STEM industries and academic establishments cause decreased employment opportunities in these scientific fields.

4. Industry-Academia Disconnect
Private firms that work little with educational establishments create barriers for successful research and development activities.
A few educational institutions remain the only establishments which privately engage with sector partners.

5. Low Funding & Brain Drain
Both inadequate technology funding alongside the loss of qualified workers to foreign work opportunities create limitations to progress.
The country currently faces an employee talent retention problem because researchers find more rewarding research opportunities abroad.

Solutions and Recommendations

1. Developing a National Innovation Ecosystem
The development of a comprehensive system requires funds together with academic-industrial partnerships and expandable practices.
– Fact: Programs like Atal Innovation Mission (AIM), India Innovation Growth Programme (IIGP) 2.0, and AGNIi foster innovation.

2. Encouraging Private Sector Funding
The innovation level increases when corporations receive stronger incentives to spend their money on R&D activities.
The expenditure of private business capital enables scientific discoveries to create economic benefits.

3. Promoting Entrepreneurial Ecosystem
– Financial and policy support for women entrepreneurs and breakthrough ideas will diversify innovation.
– Fact: Promoting entrepreneurship among women creates role models and fosters inclusivity.
4. Brain Gain Programs
Engaging the diaspora through initiatives like Kerala’s Brain Gain Program can reverse brain drain.
Fact: Kerala’s initiative successfully supports returning academic talent.

Conclusion
India needs to bridge educational gaps, enhance funding, strengthen industry collaboration, and retain talent in order to become a global innovation leader. Research, technology, and entrepreneurship are key drivers for economic growth as well as to overcome socio-economic challenges.

Public expenditure in India must be improved by addressing current efficiency problems.

Introduction
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and inclusive growth achieve their targets through efficient public expenditures. The public spending audits in India consistently show that inefficient allocation of funds diminishes multiple development programs’ effectiveness. This paper examines primary causes of inefficiency followed by recommendation-based solutions to boost expenditure performance.

Inefficiencies in Public Expenditure

1. Non-Spending of Allocated Funds
Public funds do not get expended due to governance failures combined with administrative delays and insufficient coordination. The CAG Report (2017) revealed that ₹2,500 crore allocated for the Clean Ganga Mission failed to result in any spending. 2. Typically most allocations lead to Fund diversion toward ineligible costs because of this the funding impact diminishes.
According to the CAG Report (2017) about disaster management in Jammu and Kashmir the audit revealed that 25% of allocated funds went toward unrelated projects.

3. Irregular and Wasteful Expenditure .
The combination of poor procurement systems and inadequate monitoring and poor management practices leads to financial waste.
According to the CAG Report of 2020 many government departments in Goa exhibited evidence of wasteful spending.

4. Welfare scheme funds experience inefficient allocation and funding leaks that make them operate with less impact. The Parliamentary Standing Committee Report identified faults in the implementation of three fundamental programs including Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan, Mid-Day Meal and PM Awas Yojana.

Measures to Address Inefficiencies

1. Reorienting the Budget with SDGs
SDG alignment produces budget focus that enhances the impact of financial spending.
Haryana together with Maharashtra find success in this model to improve their resource distribution system.

2. Expenditure Reforms
Introducing sunset clauses for e-procurement and public programs and implementing rationalization of schemes will reduce operational inefficiencies.

3. Better Scheme Formulation
State governments should take part in policy development to create schemes that match regional requirements.

4. Creating Expert Oversight Institutions
– Strengthening NITI Aayog or establishing a Centre-State Expenditure Commission can provide better financial oversight.

Conclusion
Addressing inefficiencies in public expenditure is vital for maximizing the impact of development programs. A combination of reforms, transparency, and expert oversight is essential to ensure that public funds drive sustainable and inclusive growth. Strengthening governance mechanisms will enhance accountability, making India’s development initiatives more effective and impactful.

The economic consequences for farmers continue to rise due to extensive product losses in Indian fields following harvest mainly from improper post-harvest management practices. Appropriate sorting methods combined with grading techniques along with cleaning and proper storage practices enable successful post-harvest management techniques that lower losses while raising overall returns.

Political executives who handle produce after harvest can improve product quality and shelf stability and thus increase its market worth through consumer demand.

The processing methods of drying and canning and freezing enable raw material transformation into marketable items including juices and jams and pickles. The produce accumulates enhanced value which enables farmers to generate profits by diversifying their activities beyond farming.

Harvesters can gain better market opportunities through improved management practices during post-harvest processes. Quality product management enables agricultural producers to reach superior market segments where they can interact with multiple buying entities such as processors and exporters and retailers.

The farmers become less dependent on middlemen since this improvement eliminates the situation where these intermediaries set higher prices and benefit financially by exploiting farmers. Appealing products to a broader range of buyers enables them to achieve superior price rates together with enhanced revenues.
The following elements influence post-harvest activities in India:

Post-harvest loss in India remains substantial because the country lacks sufficient cold storage facilities alongside inadequate transportation and processing units.

A wide range of farmers display inadequate information about both proper post-harvest product handling methods and quality control essentials.

Small-scale farmers face barriers because they lack access to advanced post-harvest technological equipment including refrigeration systems and cold storage units and processing machines.

Lack of Market Information: Farmers do not have information regarding the market; hence they tend to make decisions on price, marketing channels, and value-addition opportunities very poorly.