Model Answer

Causes of Landslides

Landslides in the Himalayas predominantly stem from tectonic instability due to the ongoing northward movement of the Indian plate, which creates stress on geological formations. This region is also characterized by significant seismic activity, making the rocks more susceptible to landslides (Source: Indian Journal of Geology). Conversely, landslides in the Western Ghats are primarily triggered during the monsoon season, where prolonged heavy rainfall leads to soil saturation, resulting in mass movements (Source: U.S. Geological Survey).

Nature of Landslides

The scale of landslides differs substantially; those in the Himalayas tend to be massive, often displacing significant amounts of the overburden and underlying geology. In contrast, the Western Ghats mostly experience mudslides and debris flows, which are comparatively smaller in scale (Source: Earth Surface Processes and Landforms).

Frequency and Slope Instability

The frequency of landslides is notably higher in the Himalayas, where erosion and instability are accentuated by immature topography. The Western Ghats, while still vulnerable, have more stable geological conditions as they are primarily composed of harder rocks, leading to lower incidences of landslides (Source: NDMA Annual Report).

Conclusion

Despite these differences in causes and characteristics, both regions face similar devastation from landslides, exacerbated by anthropogenic activities such as construction and mining. Effective management strategies must therefore address these human impacts while considering regional geological factors (Source: Journal of Mountain Science).

Model Answer

Tribunals are judicial or quasi-judicial bodies established by law to resolve specific types of disputes, often involving specialized knowledge or expertise. Their main purpose is to ease the burden on regular courts by offering faster adjudication of cases, especially in complex or technical matters. Tribunals were not initially part of the Indian Constitution but were introduced through the 42nd Amendment (1976), which added Articles 323A and 323B to empower the creation of tribunals.

The Administrative Tribunals Act of 1985 allowed for the establishment of the Central Administrative Tribunal and State Administrative Tribunals to handle matters related to public services, with provisions for joint tribunals in certain states.

Differences Between Article 323A and Article 323B

1. Scope and Functionality

• Article 323A focuses on the establishment of tribunals specifically for public service matters (e.g., disputes related to government employees, promotions, disciplinary matters).
• Article 323B covers a broader range of subjects, including taxation, land reforms, rent control, and foreign exchange. It enables tribunals to be formed for various other technical and specialized matters.

2. Authority to Establish Tribunals

• Article 323A allows only the Parliament to establish tribunals related to public service matters.
• Article 323B grants both Parliament and State Legislatures the power to create tribunals for matters falling within their respective jurisdictions.

3. Hierarchy of Tribunals

• Article 323A provides for a single tribunal for the entire country (e.g., Central Administrative Tribunal) or for each state. There is no provision for creating a hierarchy of tribunals.
• Article 323B allows the creation of a hierarchy of tribunals, meaning multiple levels of tribunals may be established for more complex or large-scale issues.

Judicial Remedies Against Tribunal Decisions

Originally, decisions from these tribunals could only be appealed to the Supreme Court. However, in the landmark Chandra Kumar case (1997), the Supreme Court ruled that provisions excluding the jurisdiction of High Courts were unconstitutional, thus restoring the High Court’s role in adjudicating appeals from tribunals.

Conclusion

Tribunals serve as a crucial mechanism to decongest the judiciary, and the distinction between Articles 323A and 323B allows for specialized tribunals to address different types of disputes effectively.

Model Answer

The withdrawal of the Non-Cooperation Movement (NCM) in 1922 marked a turning point, leading to the revival and escalation of revolutionary activities in India. Key factors driving this surge include:

1. Disillusionment with Non-Cooperation Movement

The sudden withdrawal of the NCM after the Chauri Chaura incident left many young nationalists disheartened. Revolutionary groups began questioning the effectiveness of non-violent methods and sought alternative strategies to achieve freedom.

2. Lack of Faith in Parliamentary Politics

Younger nationalists were dissatisfied with the parliamentary efforts of the Swarajists and the constructive work of the No-Changers. They believed violent methods were the only viable path to overthrow British rule.

3. Influence of Global Events

The success of the Russian Revolution (1917) inspired Indian revolutionaries, introducing them to Marxist and socialist ideologies. This motivated them to pursue organized, class-based revolutionary activities.

4. Growth of Trade Unionism

The post-World War I rise in working-class trade unionism fueled the belief among revolutionaries that the proletariat could be mobilized for a nationalist revolution.

5. Revolutionary Literature and Popular Culture

Books like Bandi Jiwan by Sachin Sanyal and Pather Dabi by Sharat Chandra Chatterjee, along with revolutionary journals such as Atmasakti and Bijoli, celebrated the sacrifice and heroism of revolutionaries, inspiring youth to join the cause.

6. Strategic Shifts in Revolutionary Activities

Revolutionary groups shifted from individual actions to organized group activities targeting British institutions. This phase saw the emergence of iconic leaders like Bhagat Singh, Chandrasekhar Azad, and Surya Sen, who aimed to demoralize the colonial bureaucracy.

7. Regional Revolutionary Groups

Two distinct revolutionary strands developed:

• Punjab-UP-Bihar: Focused on group actions under leaders like Bhagat Singh and Azad.
• Bengal: Operated by leaders like Surya Sen, with the Chittagong Armoury Raid as a prominent example.

Despite severe repression, revolutionaries persisted, laying the groundwork for intensified anti-colonial efforts in the coming decades.

Model Answer

Introduction

Between 1765 and 1833, the relationship between the East India Company (EIC) and the British state evolved significantly, marked by a series of regulatory acts. These acts gradually brought the Company under greater British control, influencing both its political and commercial functions in India.

Dual Government (1765-1772): During this period, the EIC’s Indian officials held power but were not responsible, while British officials had responsibility but lacked power. This imbalance led to widespread corruption and exploitation, which attracted the attention of British politicians and merchants eager to share in the profits from India.

Regulating Act (1773): This act formalized the political and administrative functions of the EIC. It introduced British control by requiring the Court of Directors to report on Indian affairs and made the Governor of Bengal the Governor-General of India, with control over Madras and Bombay. It also prohibited the Company’s servants from engaging in private trade or accepting bribes.

Pitt’s India Act (1784): This act created a dual government system by separating the Company’s commercial and political functions. The Board of Control, representing the British government, took charge of political affairs, while the EIC managed commercial activities. This system further tightened British oversight of India.

Charter Act (1793): This act extended the Company’s monopoly on trade for 20 more years but imposed a levy of 5 lakh pounds annually on Indian revenues to the British government. It also restructured the administration by separating revenue and judicial functions and restricted the movement of senior officials.

Charter Act (1813): Ending the EIC’s trade monopoly except in tea, opium, and China, this act marked the final step towards centralization. The Governor-General of India was given full legislative and financial control over British India, cementing the British government’s dominance over the Company’s affairs.

Conclusion

By 1833, the series of acts had subordinated the East India Company to British parliamentary control, enabling the British to consolidate power and establish a more centralized and efficient administration in India.