Roadmap for Answer Writing

Introduction

• Start by introducing the Permanent Settlement (1793) introduced by Lord Cornwallis in Bengal, and briefly explain its objectives.
• Mention the role it played in the British revenue system, focusing on its intention to create a stable and fixed revenue model.

Disillusionment with the Permanent Settlement

1. Loss of Income for the Company
   • Despite the fixed revenue structure, the British faced financial strains due to rising expenses, especially military expenditures.
   • Fact: From 1798 to 1806, funds meant for purchasing trade goods were diverted to cover military costs, highlighting the financial shortcomings of the Permanent Settlement【Fact 1】.
2. Higher Default by Zamindars
   • The fixed tax rates created a financial burden on zamindars, leading to widespread defaults and property sales.
   • Fact: Between 1794 and 1819, 68% of zamindari land in Bengal was sold due to the inability of zamindars to meet tax demands【Fact 2】.
3. No Improvement in Productivity
   • The British expected the Permanent Settlement to encourage land improvements and increase agricultural productivity, but zamindars had little incentive to invest in land development.
   • Fact: There were no notable gains in productivity under this system due to the lack of investment by zamindars【Fact 3】.
4. Peasant Oppression
   • The system imposed high rents on peasants and led to evictions for non-payment, causing widespread resentment and instability in rural areas.
   • Fact: The peasants faced increasing oppression as landlords demanded excessive rents, leading to uprisings【Fact 4】.

Lessons Learned and the Development of Alternative Land Revenue Systems

1. Ryotwari System
   • Key Elements: Direct relationship between the state and cultivators (ryots). Introduced by Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Read, it was implemented in South India.
   • Fact: The Ryotwari system involved a field-by-field assessment to determine revenue based on soil quality and land area. The system allowed for periodic revisions, unlike the Permanent Settlement【Fact 5】.
2. Mahalwari System
   • Key Elements: Developed by Holt Mackenzie and Robert Merttins Bird, the Mahalwari system was introduced in the North-Western Provinces, parts of central India, and the Punjab.
   • Fact: This system assessed revenue at the village or group of villages (mahal), and it allowed periodic revisions in line with economic conditions【Fact 6】.

Conclusion

• Conclude by emphasizing that the disillusionment with the Permanent Settlement highlighted the need for more flexible and responsive revenue systems.
• The lessons from the Permanent Settlement contributed to the development of alternative systems like the Ryotwari and Mahalwari systems, which sought to address the shortcomings and oppressive nature of the original model.

Relevant Facts for the Answer

1. Loss of Income for the Company:
   • Between 1798 and 1806, Lord Wellesley diverted funds for military purposes, leading to a financial shortfall, highlighting the failure of the fixed revenue model under the Permanent Settlement.
2. Higher Default by Zamindars:
   • Between 1794 and 1819, 68% of zamindari land in Bengal was sold due to the inability of zamindars to meet the high fixed tax demands.
3. No Improvement in Productivity:
   • The British expected land improvements under the Permanent Settlement, but the zamindars did not invest in agricultural productivity.
4. Peasant Oppression:
   • Peasants faced high rents and evictions, leading to widespread discontent, which played a role in subsequent uprisings.
5. Ryotwari System:
   • Introduced by Thomas Munro and Captain Alexander Read in South India, the Ryotwari system allowed for a direct settlement with ryots and periodic revisions of revenue based on field assessments.
6. Mahalwari System:
   • Developed by Holt Mackenzie and Robert Merttins Bird, it was implemented in regions like the North-Western Provinces and Punjab, with revenue assessed at the village level and periodic revisions.