Caste continues to play a significant role in contemporary Indian society, despite legal and social efforts to mitigate its influence. The caste system, traditionally a hierarchical social stratification based on birth, remains deeply embedded in India’s social, political, and economic structures. Its implications for social justice are profound, affecting access to education, employment, political representation, and social mobility, often perpetuating inequality and discrimination. However, there have also been positive developments in addressing caste-based disparities, particularly through affirmative action and increased awareness of caste injustice.

1. Persistence of Caste in Social Structures

• Caste in Rural vs. Urban Areas: In rural areas, caste distinctions remain more rigid, influencing social relations, marriage, occupation, and community interactions. Many villages are still divided along caste lines, and caste-based discrimination can be overt. However, in urban areas, caste identities are often less visible, though they still subtly influence social and professional networks.
• Marriage and Social Interaction: Endogamy (marrying within one’s caste) remains a strong social norm, even in modern, urban settings. Surveys indicate that most marriages in India still occur within the same caste, underscoring the enduring importance of caste in personal and family decisions.
• Caste and Social Mobility: While economic growth and urbanization have allowed some individuals from lower castes to achieve social mobility, caste continues to limit opportunities for many. Those from higher castes, particularly the Brahmins and Kshatriyas, often have better access to education, networks, and resources, reinforcing a cycle of privilege.

2. Caste and Economic Inequality

• Unequal Access to Opportunities: Economic inequality in India is closely tied to caste. Historically marginalized communities, particularly Scheduled Castes (SCs) and Scheduled Tribes (STs), often face higher levels of poverty and lack access to quality education, healthcare, and employment opportunities. This is reflected in higher rates of unemployment and underemployment among these groups.
• Caste in the Workforce: Although discrimination based on caste in employment is illegal, implicit bias still affects hiring and promotion practices in both the public and private sectors. Informal and low-paying jobs are often disproportionately filled by members of SCs, STs, and Other Backward Classes (OBCs), while higher-paying jobs, particularly in sectors like technology, business, and government, are more likely to be held by upper-caste individuals.

3. Political Representation and Caste-Based Parties

• Affirmative Action and Reservations: To address caste-based inequalities, India has implemented reservation policies that allocate quotas for SCs, STs, and OBCs in education, government jobs, and legislatures. These measures have had a significant impact, particularly in improving access to higher education and political representation for marginalized groups. However, the effectiveness of these policies is frequently debated, with some arguing that they have not adequately addressed the deeper social and economic inequalities.
• Caste-Based Political Parties: Caste remains a central factor in Indian politics. Many political parties appeal to specific caste groups, mobilizing voters based on caste identity. Parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP), which advocates for the rights of Dalits (formerly “Untouchables”), have emerged to represent marginalized castes. While this has empowered certain groups, caste-based politics can also entrench divisions, leading to vote-bank politics and reinforcing caste identities.

4. Caste and Social Justice Movements

• Dalit Movements: Dalits have historically been the most oppressed group in the caste hierarchy. Contemporary Dalit movements, including leaders like B.R. Ambedkar, have played a crucial role in advocating for social justice and equality. Ambedkar’s work in framing the Indian Constitution and his advocacy for Dalit rights laid the foundation for ongoing struggles against caste discrimination.
• Ambedkarite Movements: The Ambedkarite movement, which calls for the complete annihilation of caste, has gained renewed momentum in recent years, especially in urban areas and through social media. Many Dalits view conversion to Buddhism, as Ambedkar advocated, as a way to escape the Hindu caste system and assert their dignity.
• Rise of Anti-Caste Activism: Increasing awareness of caste-based injustice, particularly among younger generations, has spurred a rise in anti-caste activism. Movements such as #DalitLivesMatter have drawn attention to caste-based violence and discrimination, particularly in cases of atrocities committed against lower-caste individuals.

5. Caste-Based Discrimination and Violence

• Caste Atrocities: Despite legal protections, caste-based violence remains a significant issue. Dalits are often victims of hate crimes, including lynching, rape, and social boycotts. The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act was enacted to combat such violence, but enforcement remains inconsistent, and many perpetrators go unpunished.
• Social Exclusion and Discrimination: Discrimination against lower castes is not limited to physical violence but also includes forms of social exclusion. In many rural areas, Dalits are still denied access to water sources, temples, and public spaces, and they often face segregation in schools and workplaces. Although illegal, such practices continue in more subtle forms in various parts of the country.

6. Caste and Education

• Disparities in Educational Access: Caste plays a significant role in educational inequality in India. While reservation policies have helped many marginalized students gain access to education, there are still substantial gaps in literacy rates and educational attainment between upper-caste and lower-caste groups. Many schools in rural areas remain segregated or biased against lower-caste students.
• Affirmative Action and Higher Education: The reservation system in higher education institutions has been a vital tool for improving access to education for SCs, STs, and OBCs. However, debates around “meritocracy” versus reservations often dominate public discourse, with critics arguing that reservations compromise educational standards, while supporters assert that they are necessary for achieving social justice and leveling the playing field.

7. Caste and the Digital Divide

• Access to Technology: The digital revolution in India has created new opportunities for social mobility, but access to technology is often unevenly distributed along caste lines. Upper-caste groups, who tend to have better access to resources, are more likely to benefit from digital education and economic opportunities, while lower-caste individuals may face barriers in accessing the internet, smartphones, or digital literacy programs. This perpetuates inequalities in education and employment.
• Social Media and Caste Activism: At the same time, social media has become a powerful platform for caste activism. Dalit and anti-caste activists have used platforms like Twitter, Facebook, and YouTube to raise awareness about caste-based discrimination, organize protests, and advocate for social change. This has led to greater visibility for Dalit issues and fostered solidarity across regions and communities.

8. Globalization and the Changing Dynamics of Caste

• Impact of Globalization: Globalization and the growth of a modern, cosmopolitan middle class have shifted the dynamics of caste in some ways. Economic opportunities in sectors like IT, where merit often outweighs traditional social hierarchies, have allowed some lower-caste individuals to break free from the limitations imposed by caste.
• Caste in Global Diaspora: However, caste has also been exported to the Indian diaspora, where caste-based discrimination continues to affect Indian communities abroad. Recent movements, particularly in the U.S. and U.K., have seen calls for legal protections against caste discrimination in the diaspora, further highlighting the global reach of caste-related issues.

Conclusion

Caste remains a deeply entrenched social structure in contemporary Indian society, influencing everything from education and employment to marriage and political representation. While legal and social reforms, including affirmative action, have made significant strides in promoting social justice for historically marginalized communities, caste-based discrimination and inequality persist. The challenge for Indian society is to balance the preservation of cultural identity and diversity with the goal of creating a more equitable and inclusive society where caste no longer serves as a barrier to opportunity and justice. The role of caste in modern India is evolving, but its implications for social justice remain a critical issue in the pursuit of equality and human rights.