India generates over 1,50,000 tonnes of municipal solid waste (MSW) per day. The per capita waste generation in Indian cities ranges from 200 grams to 600 grams per day. Only about 75-80% of the municipal solid waste gets collected and only 22-28% of this waste is processed and treated. Current systems in India cannot cope with the volumes of waste generated by an increasing urban population. This has an adverse impact on public health, the environment and the economy. To address these concerns, understanding the shortcomings in solid waste management system in the country is a prerequisite; the following can be highlighted in this context:

At collection level:

• There is an absence of organized and scientifically planned segregation of waste at source, i.e. household level or at community bins. Collection, segregation and sorting is undertaken majorly by the informal sector, rag pickers and kabadiwalas under very unsafe and hazardous conditions.
• Formal solid waste management rules are not implemented well to cover the informal sector. Further, the rules do not even provide incentives for the informal recyclers either to sell to the formal recyclers or to formalise.

At treatment or processing level:

• India is still struggling to make waste-to-energy projects a success story. The composting plants run at under-capacity as compost is not efficiently marketed and it is not economically attractive to the farmer due to heavy subsidies on chemical fertilizers.

At disposal level:

• In India, almost every city, town, or village adopted unscientific disposal of MSW. There are widespread violations of rules with respect to the scientific requirements for the location of a landfill; stipulated timeline of functioning of landfills; dumping more garbage in landfills as compensation of contractors is based on tonnage etc.
• Moreover, the current dominance of the centralised waste disposal arrangements just shifts the problem from the source of waste generation to waste disposal sites. They also involve long distance transportation of waste, with possible negative externalities and higher fuel consumption.

At society level:

As of now there is indifference in citizens and lack of contribution of people towards waste management. The importance of segregation and recycling is not well understood.

At administrative and policy level:

• Municipal authorities have insufficient budgets to cover the costs associated with developing sustainable SWM. Recycling by waste pickers saves municipalities’ money by reducing the volume of waste that needs to be collected, transported, and disposed of. Still there has been no initiative on the part of municipalities to integrate formal and informal sector in solid waste management
• There is a lack of coordination for specific action plans and poor strategy at implementation level by ULBs. There is also a lack of accountability in current SWM systems throughout India.
• Moreover, lack of technical expertise and political & bureaucratic will leads to quick-fix and unscientific solutions. For eg opting for capping i.e. covering up the landfill sites which has proven to be an ineffective solution as it releases methane which has disastrous effects.

These shortcomings prove to be a major hindrance in the waste management in India. In this context, new Solid Waste Management Rules (SWM), 2016 may improve SWM system in India as it promotes segregation at source, user fee for collection, compost marketing, promotion of waste to energy etc.

Agricultural marketing refers to all those processes, which relate to taking the agricultural product from the farmers to the consumers, which includes gathering the agricultural produce, their standardization and grading, value addition (processing and preservation), their storage, transportation and selling in the market. An efficient system of agricultural marketing provides an incentive to take up agriculture as a gainful occupation and reduce unemployment. It also leads to the integration of the different sectors of the economy such as agriculture, industry, etc. A well-organised marketing system makes it possible to make available foodstuffs at different centres and secure non-farm products. Not only it facilitates modernization of agriculture but also helps to maintain stability in the prices by maintaining balance between demands and supply.

However, the agricultural marketing system in India faces a lot of issues such as

• Weakness of farming system: Production in small and scattered units and considerable dependence on natural forces aggravates the problem of agricultural marketing. Small farmers generate small surpluses, which make grading difficult. The surplus available for sale cannot be determined in advance. The cost assembling small quantities from different places becomes very high.
• Inadequate storage facilities: Every year 15 to 30 percent of the agricultural produce is damaged either by rats or rains due to the absence of proper storage facilities/ warehouses. This forces farmers to sell their surplus produce just after harvests at a very low and un- remunerative price.
• Inadequate means of transportation: Absence of proper road transportation facilities in the rural areas forces farmers to sell their produce at the village markets itself, instead of nearby mandis and other markets.
• Lack of grading and standardisation facilities: Lack of proper grading of the product results in failing to fetch a good price for the quality product. Further, different measures and weights are used in different markets that often provide opportunities for cheating and manipulation of farmers.
• Lack of Organisation: There are a large number of small farmers scattered throughout the length and breadth of the country. These farmers are unorganized and ill-informed and the middlemen therefore assume greater importance in agricultural markets.
• Inadequate market information: The market systems in India are not perfectly competitive in a view that the farmers do not usually get adequate information about the price that prevail in the markets.
• Finance issues: Financial assistance available to the farmer for meeting cultivation and marketing costs is grossly inadequate. This forces the farmer to borrow from local moneylenders or village traders. This forces the farmer to sell the produce at an unfavourable place, at an unfavourable time and at an unfavourable price.

To overcome these issues, the government has set up a digital national market (e-NAM), incentivized setting up of FPOs, setting up an agri-marketing infrastructure fund to upgrade agricultural marketing infrastructure in the Grameen Agricultural Markets (GrAMs) and APMCS. Also, the government has introduced institutional reforms that include amending the Essential Commodities Act to remove the existing restrictions on stocking food produce, a new law The Farmers’ Produce Trade and Commerce (Promotion and Facilitation) Ordinance, 2020 to end the monopoly of the APMCs (APMC) and allows anyone to purchase and sell agricultural produce and The Farmers (Empowerment and Protection) Agreement on Price Assurance and Farm Services Ordinance, 2020 to legalise contract farming, so that big businesses and companies can cultivate vast swaths of land on contract.

The total stock of money in circulation among the public at a particular point of time is called money supply. It consists of currency, printed notes, money in the deposit accounts and in the form of other liquid assets. It does not include other forms of wealth such as long-term investments or physical assets that must be sold to convert to cash. It also does not include various forms of credit, such as loans, mortgages, and credit cards. The amount of money supply in the economy is crucial as it affects the production, price level, and employment in the economy. The central bank of the country (RBI) publishes following measures of money supply:

Reserve Money (M0): It is the base level for the money supply or the high-powered component of the money supply. It constitutes currency in circulation, Bankers’ deposits with the RBI and ‘other’ deposits with the RBI.
Narrow Money: It typically covers the most liquid form of money that can be easily converted into currency or used for cashless payments for transaction and commerce purposes. RBI publishes M1 and M2 as the two measures of narrow money:
M1: It consists of currency (notes plus coins) held by public and net Demand deposits held with the commercial banks and ‘other’ deposits with the RBI. This is the most liquid and easiest money available for transactions.
M2: It consists of M1 plus Savings deposits with the Post Office Saving banks.
Broad Money: It is a broad classification of money that includes time deposits along with currency in circulation and demand deposits with banks and post offices. They are less liquid than the narrow money. RBI publishes:
M3: It consists of M1 plus net time deposits of commercial banks. It captures the complete balance sheet of the banking sector and is known as aggregate monetary resources. It is the most common measure used for money supply.
M4: M3 plus all deposits with the post office saving banks (excluding National Savings Certificates). Since total deposits with post offices are negligible, there is not much difference between M3 and M4.

In terms of liquidity, these can be arranged as- M1>M2>M3>M4. ‘Other’ deposits with RBI comprise mainly: (i) deposits of quasi-government and other financial institutions including primary dealers, (ii) balances in the accounts of foreign Central banks and Governments, (iii) accounts of international agencies such as the International Monetary Fund, etc. Valuation and analysis of the money supply in the economy helps the policy makers to frame or to alter the monetary policy.

Extracurricular activities can significantly contribute to students’ future career success in several ways:

1. Development of soft skills: Extracurricular activities help students develop essential soft skills like teamwork, communication, leadership, time management, and problem-solving, which are highly valued by employers.
2. Building a strong work ethic: Participating in extracurricular activities demonstrates a student’s commitment to their goals and helps them develop a strong work ethic, which is crucial for achieving success in their chosen career.
3. Networking opportunities: Extracurricular activities provide opportunities for students to connect with like-minded individuals, mentors, and industry professionals, potentially leading to valuable connections and job opportunities.
4. Gaining practical experience: Many extracurricular activities offer hands-on experience in a specific field or industry, giving students a competitive edge when applying for jobs or graduate programs.
5. Enhancing employability: Students who participate in extracurricular activities are more likely to be considered for jobs and internships, as they demonstrate a well-rounded skillset and a willingness to take on additional responsibilities.
6. Developing a sense of purpose: Extracurricular activities can help students discover their passions and interests, giving them direction and purpose in their academic and professional pursuits.
7. Building confidence and self-esteem: Participating in extracurricular activities can boost students’ confidence and self-esteem, helping them develop a growth mindset and become more resilient in the face of challenges.
8. Learning transferable skills: Many extracurricular activities teach transferable skills such as project management, budgeting, marketing, and fundraising, which can be applied to various careers.
9. Leadership development: Extracurricular activities provide opportunities for students to take on leadership roles, develop leadership skills, and build their reputation as effective leaders.
10. Enhancing academic performance: Students who participate in extracurricular activities tend to have better academic performance, as they develop study habits, time management skills, and a stronger sense of purpose.
11. Mentorship opportunities: Extracurricular activities often provide opportunities for students to be mentored by experienced professionals or peers, who can offer guidance, support, and valuable insights.
12. Creating a personal brand: By participating in extracurricular activities, students can create a personal brand that showcases their skills, achievements, and interests to potential employers.

Globalization has had a significant impact on Indian society, leading to both positive and negative effects. Some of the key effects of globalization on Indian society include:

Positive effects:

1. Economic growth: Globalization has led to an increase in India’s economic growth rate, with GDP growth averaging over 7% per annum in the past two decades. This has created new job opportunities and improved living standards for many Indians.
2. Increased foreign investment: Globalization has attracted foreign investment into India, particularly in the IT, pharmaceutical, and manufacturing sectors. This has led to the creation of new industries and jobs.
3. Access to global markets: Globalization has given Indian businesses access to global markets, enabling them to export goods and services to other countries.
4. Improved technology: Globalization has brought about rapid advances in technology, which has improved communication, transportation, and healthcare facilities in India.
5. Cultural exchange: Globalization has facilitated cultural exchange between India and other countries, promoting understanding and cooperation.

Negative effects:

1. Unemployment: While globalization has created new job opportunities, it has also led to job displacement in traditional sectors such as agriculture and manufacturing.
2. Income inequality: The benefits of globalization have not been evenly distributed, leading to increased income inequality between the rich and the poor.
3. Brain drain: Many Indian professionals have left the country to work abroad, leading to a brain drain and a shortage of skilled workers in certain fields.
4. Cultural homogenization: Globalization has led to the spread of Western culture, threatening traditional Indian customs and values.
5. Environmental degradation: The rapid economic growth driven by globalization has led to environmental degradation, pollution, and climate change.
6. Rise of consumerism: Globalization has promoted consumerism, leading to an increase in materialism and a decrease in spiritual values.
7. Impact on traditional industries: Globalization has disrupted traditional industries such as handicrafts, textiles, and agriculture, leading to job losses and poverty among rural communities.
8. Increased cost of living: The influx of foreign goods and services has increased the cost of living in India, making it difficult for many people to afford basic necessities.

To mitigate the negative effects of globalization, the Indian government has implemented policies such as:

1. Social protection programs: To reduce poverty and income inequality.
2. Infrastructure development: To improve transportation and communication networks.
3. Education and skill development: To increase the employability of Indian workers.
4. Protectionist policies: To protect traditional industries from foreign competition.
5. Sustainable development: To promote environmentally friendly practices.